Shi Zhihong: Steadfastly Implementing Whole-Process People’s Democracy

As President Xi Jinping has declared, “People’s democracy is the lifeblood of socialism, and it is integral to our efforts to build a modern socialist country in all respects. Whole-process people’s democracy is the defining feature of socialist democracy; it is democracy in its broadest, most genuine, and most effective form.” At its third plenary session, the 20th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China (CPC) adopted the Resolution on Further Deepening Reform Comprehensively to Advance Chinese Modernization. The Resolution identifies “advancing whole-process people’s democracy” as one of seven key areas for promoting Chinese modernization. Moreover, the document includes a section on “advancing whole-process people’s democracy” in the systematic plans for continuing comprehensive reform. This further underscores the critical importance of steadfastly implementing whole-process people’s democracy. The development of whole-process people’s democracy is not only an essential requirement for Chinese modernization; it is also a powerful driving force and institutional guarantee for realizing socialist modernization under the leadership of the CPC.

The origins of whole-process people’s democracy

From a theoretical standpoint, the concept of whole-process people’s democracy introduced by President Xi represents both a continuation and innovation of the ideas of proletarian democracy proposed by Marx and Engels, socialist democracy advanced by Lenin, and people’s democracy articulated by Mao Zedong. It both upholds and builds upon these democratic theories.

Township and village officials join local residents in a discussion on post-disaster rebuilding plans at a reconstruction consultation meeting in Songjiagou Village, Jishishan County, Gansu Province, January 17, 2024. PHOTO BY XINHUA REPORTER MA XIPING

In examining the CPC’s endeavors to unite and lead the people in pursuing, realizing, and developing democracy, we can see that after its founding in 1921, the CPC devoted itself to building a new society where the people would run the country. On this basis, it outlined a vision for a future state system and led the people in striving for this. During the Agrarian Revolutionary War period (1927- 1937), the CPC established the Chinese Soviet Republic in the Central Soviet Area of Jiangxi and began initial attempts to develop a state system and legal system. During the War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression period (1937-1945), the Party set up a center of counter-Japanese democratic political power based in Yan’an and represented by the Shaanxi-Gansu-Ningxia Border Region. It formed a border region government, adhering to the “three-thirds” principle (according to which Communist Party members, non-CPC progressives, and middle-of-the-roaders each filled a third of official posts). In line with this system, the Assembly of Representatives served as the highest organ of power, and legislative, administrative, and judicial bodies were also established at various levels. After the founding of the PRC in 1949, the CPC creatively applied the Marxist theory of the state and steadily worked to build a socialist state system. It gradually established and consolidated China’s state system, governance system, foundational political system, basic political systems, basic economic systems, and other important systems in various fields. The Chinese socialist system and socialist legal system were thus improved on a continuous basis.

From an economic standpoint, China’s basic socialist economic system has always ensured that the lifelines of the national economy remain firmly in the hands of all its people. This has provided a solid economic foundation and material guarantee for ensuring that the people run the country and for the implementation of whole-process people’s democracy. Furthermore, it has fundamentally ensured that political power in China is not distributed based on personal status or wealth, but is equally shared by all citizens. It guarantees that state power serves the interests of the people rather than those of capital.

From the perspective of the evolution in the principal challenge facing Chinese society, we can see that since the dawn of the new era in 2012, the CPC Central Committee with Xi Jinping at its core has grounded itself in the new historical context. It has pursued a strategy of national rejuvenation amid global changes of a magnitude not seen in a century, fully grasped the new features and demands arising from the shift in China’s principal social challenges, and actively addressed the people’s new aspirations and expectations with regard to democracy and the rule of law. While working to deepen reform of Party and state institutions and modernize China’s system and capacity for governance to keep pace with the times, it has upheld and developed the foundational, basic, and important political systems for socialism with Chinese characteristics. This has enabled it to consolidate and develop the broadest possible patriotic united front, improve the system of institutions through which the people run the country, and encourage people’s orderly participation in political affairs in accordance with the law.

Whole-process people’s democracy, as a crystallization of China’s innovative experience in developing democratic political theory, systems, and practices, fully embodies several key principles. These can be summarized as the “two inevitabilities,” the “two full embodiments,” the “two complete principles,” and the “two seamless integrations.”

The “two inevitabilities” refer to the fact that the development of whole-process people’s democracy is the inevitable result of history, theory, and practice based on the endeavors of the Chinese people in modern times; it is also an inevitable requirement for preserving the CPC’s essential nature and fulfilling its fundamental purpose. The “two full embodiments” refer to the fact that whole-process people’s democracy fully embodies both the socialist nature of the state and the principal position of the people. As such, it serves to better represent the people’s will, protect their rights and interests, and spark their creativity. The “two complete principles” refer to the fact that China’s whole-process people’s democracy is based on both a complete set of institutions and procedures and complete participation in practice. The “two seamless integrations” refer to the fact that whole-process people’s democracy seamlessly integrates leadership by the Party with the running of the country by the people and law-based governance and with the united front and consultative democracy.

The “whole process” in whole-process people’s democracy

As early as September 2014, in a speech at a conference marking the 65th anniversary of the founding of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference, President Xi Jinping mentioned the concept of the “whole process” in China’s democracy, emphasizing that “consultative democracy is deeply embedded in the whole process of China’s socialist democracy.” On November 2, 2019, during an inspection of the Gubei Community Center in Changning District, Shanghai, President Xi further clarified this concept, stating, “We are following the path of socialist political advancement with Chinese characteristics. Our people’s democracy is a whole-process democracy, where all major legislative decisions are made in accordance with procedures, subject to democratic deliberation, and the result of a rigorous democratic decision-making process.” Our people’s democracy is characterized as “whole-process” because all major decisions made by the Party and the state, including legislative decisions, are based on established procedures and democratic deliberation. Every decision is the product of a rigorous democratic process. This comprehensive approach thus embodies the concept of a “whole process.”

The drafting of the documents of the third plenary session of the 20th CPC Central Committee epitomized whole-process people’s democracy in action. On November 27, 2023, the Central Committee issued a notice about soliciting opinions on the agenda of the third plenary session of the 20th Central Committee from all localities, departments, and sectors, as well as some officials and individuals. On May 7, 2024, the text of the resolution was issued to select Party members, including retired senior Party officials, for consultation. Opinions were also sought from the central committees of other political parties, from leaders of the All-China Federation of Industry and Commerce, from prominent figures without party affiliation, and from relevant enterprises, scholars, and experts. The drafting group carefully studied these opinions and suggestions, incorporating as many as possible, which led to 221 revisions to the document. Just as President Xi pointed out, “Throughout the drafting process, we have taken a democratic approach in order to draw on a vast pool of wisdom.” He also stated, “The localities, departments, and sectors consulted have also made many valuable suggestions on the theme and framework of the draft, as well as major reform measures to be included. This has provided us with an important reference for drafting the resolution.”

People’s congress deputies listen to the opinions and suggestions of local residents at a traditional market in Sunzhuang Subdistrict, Hai’an City, Jiangsu Province, April 11, 2024. PEOPLE’S DAILY / PHOTO BY ZHAI HUIYONG

So why is the emphasis placed on the “whole process?” A statement by President Xi Jinping can help us gain a deeper insight into the thinking behind this. He has stated that “If the people are only woken up at voting time and then return to hibernation afterward, if they only hear grandiose slogans during campaigns but have no voice once voting is over, and if they are pandered to when votes are being canvassed but left out in the cold once the tallies are complete, then they are not living in a true democracy.” In other words, a democracy that only grants people the right to vote, but no right to participate in any other way after elections, is incomplete and flawed.

Whole-process people’s democracy integrates process-oriented democracy with results-oriented democracy, procedural democracy with substantive democracy, direct democracy with indirect democracy, and people’s democracy with the will of the state. As such, it is democracy in its broadest, most genuine, and most effective form. It constitutes a comprehensive democratic chain that links all stages, including democratic elections, consultations, decision-making, management, and oversight. It is multi-dimensional democracy that permeates all levels and sectors of our country’s political and social life, and it is all-encompassing democracy that incorporates all undertakings and work of the state. The integration and synthesis of all these elements is what defines whole-process people’s democracy, which is the result of the CPC’s major theoretical and practical achievements in leading the people to promote socialist political advancement in the new era.

The comprehensive and extensive nature of whole-process people’s democracy

The comprehensive nature of whole-process people’s democracy is reflected in two key aspects. First, it encompasses a complete set of institutional procedures. China’s state system is a people’s democratic dictatorship led by the working class and based on the alliance of workers and farmers; its governance system is the system of people’s congresses; and its basic political systems are the CPC-led system of multi-party cooperation and political consultation, the system of regional ethnic autonomy, and the system of community-level self-governance. Based on these systems, we have consolidated and developed the broadest possible patriotic united front, put in place a comprehensive, extensive, and well-coordinated system of institutions that guarantee the people run the country, and developed diverse, open, and orderly channels for democracy.

Second, whole-process people’s democracy ensures complete participation in practice. In accordance with the law, all people are able to participate in democratic elections, consultations, decision-making, management, and oversight. Of these, democratic consultations represent an important form of whole-process people’s democracy. China’s complete democratic consultation system has enabled the coordinated development of consultations by political parties, people’s congresses, government departments, CPPCC committees, people’s organizations, communities, and social organizations. By steadily improving the various institutional platforms for consultation, we have promoted the extensive and institutionalized development of consultative democracy at various levels.

Whole-process people’s democracy blends electoral democracy and consultative democracy. It is implemented through a combination of elections, consultations, decision-making, management, and oversight and covers the economic, political, cultural, social, environmental, and other fields. This has helped create a consistent, comprehensive, and coordinated system that enables regular and extensive participation, thereby ensuring that people’s wishes are represented and their voices are heard in all aspects of political and social life. Furthermore, whole-process people’s democracy has helped enrich and expand the connotations and practices of our drive to modernize national governance. It has not only reinforced people’s sense of participation in the process of modern national governance but also boosted the effectiveness of modern national governance.

The extensive nature of whole-process people’s democracy is reflected in the fact that all people enjoy extensive democratic rights. In accordance with the provisions of the Constitution and the law, all Chinese people manage state, economic, cultural, and social affairs in various ways and forms. The Chinese Constitution stipulates that people have the right to vote and stand in elections and to be informed about, participate in, have a say in, and exercise oversight over national and social affairs. They also have the right to criticize and make suggestions regarding any state organ or public servant. Through whole-process people’s democracy, the Chinese people take part in the management of state affairs and social, economic, and cultural affairs in an extensive manner; they also fully exercise their democratic rights in everyday life. As a result, everyone plays multiple roles in advancing democracy and enjoys corresponding democratic rights in the process.

In China, human rights are fully respected and protected. China has established the world’s largest social security system, with the number of people covered by basic medical insurance exceeding 1.3 billion and the number of those covered by basic old-age insurance surpassing 1 billion. People are also continuously gaining a stronger sense of fulfillment, happiness, and security. Their rights to subsistence, development, and health are fully protected, and their economic, political, cultural, social, environmental, and other rights continue to expand. China has also secured victory in the fight against poverty, finished building a moderately prosperous society in all respects, and made steady progress toward common prosperity. Thanks to these achievements, the scope and substance of the rights enjoyed by the Chinese people have continued to expand and deepen. Moreover, the Civil Code of the People’s Republic of China was adopted on May 28, 2020, at the Third Session of the 13th National People’s Congress, and came into effect on January 1, 2021. By clearly defining citizens’ personal rights, property rights, and personality rights, the Civil Code reflects a comprehensive commitment to safeguarding the rights of all people.

The 19th CPC National Congress, the fourth and fifth plenary sessions of the 19th CPC Central Committee, and the 20th CPC National Congress all laid out a series of plans to see that by 2035, China will have basically modernized its system and capacity for governance, improved the system for whole-process people’s democracy, and built a law-based country, government, and society. On this basis, by the 100th anniversary of the PRC’s founding in 2049, China’s system and capacity for governance will be fully modernized. The 20th CPC Central Committee’s third plenary session also set forth a range of reform tasks. These include strengthening the institutions through which the people run the country, improving the mechanisms for consultative democracy, enhancing democracy at the community level, and building a broad united front. The Central Committee has called on the whole Party to take pragmatic, resolute, and effective steps to ensure the implementation of these reform plans, stressing that the litmus test of reform will lie in how well it performs, what it delivers, and how much satisfaction it brings to our people.

To implement the third plenary session’s plans for advancing whole-process people’s democracy, we must firmly stay on the path of socialist political advancement with Chinese characteristics and uphold and improve our country’s foundational, basic, and important political systems. We need to develop diverse forms of democracy at all levels and ensure that the principle of the people running the country is manifested in concrete and visible ways in all aspects of China’s political and social activities.

Whole-process people’s democracy also falls within the realm of promoting high-quality democratic development. From history, we can see that striking a balance between vitality and order has consistently proven to be a global challenge in advancing the modernization process. Chinese modernization can and should achieve a dynamic balance that fosters vitality without chaos and promotes both vibrancy and order. This is because developing whole-process people’s democracy enables us to correctly handle problems among the people under new circumstances and resolve issues at the community level as they emerge. It allows us to implement a social governance system based on collaboration, participation, and benefit sharing. This will help ensure positive interactions between the government’s governance efforts on the one hand and society’s self-regulation and residents’ self-governance on the other, thus fostering a community of social governance where everyone shoulders responsibilities and shares in the benefits. It also enables us to strengthen and innovate social governance at the community level, thereby invigorating every “cell” of our society. It places a greater emphasis on social fairness and justice and helps promote people’s well-rounded development and all-around social progress. Finally, it will help guide people in expressing their demands and protecting their rights and interests in a lawful and reasonable way, while also ensuring we crack down on various illegal and criminal activities that cause grave public concern in accordance with the law. Together, all these measures will ensure that our people can live and work in peace and contentment.

Making new contributions to political advancement of humanity

To advance the rejuvenation of the Chinese nation on all fronts through Chinese modernization, we must not only build China into a great modern socialist country, but also revitalize Chinese civilization as part of the drive for national rejuvenation. At a ceremony marking the centenary of the CPC in 2021, President Xi Jinping declared to both domestic and international audiences, “As we have upheld and developed socialism with Chinese characteristics and driven coordinated progress in material, political, cultural-ethical, social, and ecological terms, we have pioneered a new and uniquely Chinese path to modernization, and created a new model for human advancement.”

Under the CPC’s strong leadership and sound guidance, China has not chosen to follow the old path of Western countries in pursuing modernization. Instead, we have forged a uniquely Chinese modernization path. Similarly, in developing socialist democracy, China has not opted to simply copy Western democratic models. Rather, we have cultivated a new type of political advancement in the form of Chinese-style democracy. As President Xi has noted, it has been proved in practice that Chinese modernization is both viable and sustainable; it is, in fact, the only correct path open to us for building a strong country and realizing national rejuvenation. It has likewise been proven in practice that through a century of exploration, the CPC has successfully forged and steadfastly followed a path of socialist political advancement with Chinese characteristics. In China, Chinese-style democracy has proven to be both feasible and highly effective.

In November 2022, during a meeting with US President Joe Biden in Bali, Indonesia, President Xi stated, “Freedom, democracy, and human rights are the shared aspirations of humanity. They are also an unwavering pursuit of the Communist Party of China. The United States has American-style democracy, and China has Chinese-style democracy, both of which align with the respective national conditions of each country. The whole-process people’s democracy we practice in China is rooted in our country’s national conditions, its history, and its culture. It reflects the will of our people, and we, like you, take great pride in our system. No democratic system is perfect or without flaws; all require continuous development and refinement. Any specific differences between our two sides can be worked out through discussion on the basis of equality. The so-called ‘democracy vs. authoritarianism’ narrative is not the defining feature of our world today, still less does it represent the trend of our times.”

With a unique culture, a unique history, and unique underlying conditions, it was inevitable that China would choose to follow a development path suited to its characteristics. President Xi’s eight criteria for evaluating whether a country’s political system is democratic and effective and his four-point framework to determine if a country is genuinely democratic and whether the people truly run the country offer a sound and systematic elaboration of the uniqueness, advantages, and viability of China’s socialist democracy and the path of socialist political advancement with Chinese characteristics.

Among a country’s various systems, the political system plays a particularly pivotal role. President Xi has emphasized that to boost confidence in the system of Chinese socialism, we must first maintain our confidence in the Chinese socialist political system and enhance our confidence and determination in following the Chinese socialist path of political advancement. In recent times, Western democratic theories and practices have faced repeated setbacks, resulting in growing skepticism and challenges from all quarters. Against this backdrop, continually advancing the development of socialist democratic theory and creating new forms of democratic governance holds positive significance not only for our own country’s political development, but even more so for the political advancement of humanity as a whole.

Shi Zhihong is formerly Deputy Director of the Policy Research Office of the CPC Central Committee.

(Originally appeared in Qiushi Journal, Chinese edition, No. 15, 2024)