Gu Hailiang: Xi Jinping’s Economic Thinking and 21st Century Marxian Political Economy

Xi Jinping’s Economic Thinking and

21st Century Marxian Political Economy*

Gu Hailiang

Boya Chair Professor, Peking University

Abstract:

Xi Jinping’s economic thinking is the latest form of 21st century Marxian political economy. In political economy in the narrower sense, Xi Jinping’s economic thinking has accomplished the following:

The development and innovation of socialist political economy with Chinese characteristics;

The formation of a theoretical system with the new development philosophy as the main content and covering the Seven Commitments;[1]

The development of a strategy of building a modern economy that is compatible with building a great modern socialist country;

The grasp of the principal social problem at the new development stage;

The promotion of the theoretical innovation and creation of socialist political economy with Chinese characteristics.

In political economy in the widest sense, Xi Jinping’s economic thinking attaches great importance to the study of the new situation and new problems of contemporary capitalist economic relations, and has deepened the theoretical exploration of the essential characteristics and laws of contemporary capitalist economic relations. Against the background of the new round of great development, transformation and adjustment of science, technology and the economic and political pattern that the world is experiencing today, and the numerous unstable and uncertain economic, political and social factors that humankind is facing, Xi Jinping’s economic thinking has founded the political economy of the human community with a shared future. In the deep understanding and profound grasp of the theoretical characteristics, theoretical qualities, historical inheritance, contemporary issues, theoretical essence and basic positions of Xi Jinping’s economic thinking, it is expected to sublimate the theoretical charm and wisdom of 21st century Marxian political economy.

Keywords:

Xi Jinping’s Economic Thinking, 21st Century Marxian Political Economy, Political Economy in the Narrower Sense, Political Economy in the Widest

From the perspective of 21st century Marxian political economy as a whole, the theoretical innovation and creation of Xi Jinping’s economic thinking is reflected in the political economy of socialism with Chinese characteristics, which is the development and innovation of 21st century Marxian political economy in the narrower sense. In political economy in the widest sense, the theoretical innovation and creation of Xi Jinping’s economic thinking is reflected in the expansion of contemporary capitalist political economy and the creative exploration of the political economy for the human community with a shared future. Xi Jinping’s economic thinking is the latest form of 21st century Marxian political economy. 

I. The Vision of 21st Century Marxian Political Economy 

In the mid-19th century, Marx devoted himself to the scientific revolution of political economy, founded Marxian political economy and created the basic theory of Marxian political economy. Marx’s contribution was outlined by Engels in his Anti-Dühring as political economy in the narrower sense and political economy in the widest sense.

“Political economy is therefore essentially a historical science,”[2] which is the basis of Engels’ thesis on the division between political economy in the narrower sense and political economy in the widest sense in his Anti-Dühring. Political economy in the narrower sense, which is based on the economic relations of a given society, “must first investigate the special laws of each individual stage in the evolution of production and exchange” and aim to reveal “the modes of production and forms of exchange” that exist in the economic relations of a particular society. These “laws” “which are valid for definite modes of production and forms of exchange hold good for all historical periods.”[3] The object of political economy in the narrower sense is determined by the economic relations of a particular society in the position of a “subject,” i.e. as Marx pointed out that it is always necessary to remember that the subject, in this context contemporary bourgeois society, is presupposed both in reality and in the mind.[4] Marx was confronted with political economy in the narrower sense with capitalist economic relations as the object.

Political economy in the widest sense studies “the conditions and forms under which the various human societies have produced and exchanged and on this basis have distributed their products.”[5] It has a double connotation. First, it is the political economy in a “universal” sense that studies “the conditions and forms under which the various human societies have produced and exchanged and on this basis have distributed their products.” Second, it is the political economy for the “forms which had preceded it or those which still exist alongside it in less developed countries.”[6] It studies various socio-economic relations other than those occupying the position of the “subject.” Against the backdrop that political economy under the capitalist mode of production is political economy in the narrower sense, political economy in the widest sense studies both various economic relations that had preceded capitalist economic relations and those which still exist alongside them in less developed countries.

While Marx made great contributions to the study of capitalist political economy in the narrower sense, he also made important contributions to the study of political economy in the widest sense, such as the study of the political economy of the pre-capitalist mode of production, the study of the political economy of the economically and culturally backward countries that coexisted with the developed countries of the West, and the study of the political economy of the future society. According to Engels, “Such an investigation and comparison has up to the present been undertaken, in general outline, only by Marx, and we therefore owe almost exclusively to his researches all that has so far been established concerning pre-bourgeois theoretical economics.”[7]

Marxian political economy, both in the narrower and widest senses, was developed in many ways in the 20th century.

First, as for the development of capitalist political economy in the narrower sense, Lenin’s innovative research on the political economy of monopoly capitalism in the face of the changes of the capitalist era at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century became an important marker of the development of Marxian political economy in the 20th century. His research from private monopoly to state monopoly and then to international monopoly developed the most significant theory of Marxian political economy in the 20th century.

Second, with the establishment of the status of socialist economic relations as a “subject,” the research on socialist political economy in the narrower sense in socialist countries has developed significantly, which has become a significant sign of the innovation of Marxian political economy in the 20th century. Whether it is the socialist political economy of the Soviet Union, the economic school of Eastern European countries, or the Chinese socialist political economy after the founding of the People’s Republic of China, especially in the new period of reform and opening up—all constituted a new chapter of Marxian political economy in the 20th century.

Third, the political economy of underdevelopment has been developed in the form of political economy in the widest sense. It is of particular note that theories such as “political economy of growth,” “underdevelopment,” “dependent development,” and “unequal exchange” that emerged after the Second World War charted the trajectory of the development of the political economy of underdevelopment in the widest sense and opened up new horizons of Marxian political economy in the 20th century.

In the development of Marxian political economy in the 20th century, the Communist Party of China (CPC) faced up to the reality of China’s economic and social development and made great theoretical and practical achievements in adapting Marxian political economy to the Chinese context. In November 2015, Xi Jinping stated at the 28th group study session of the Central Political Bureau of the CPC Central Committee that, “Our Party has always attached importance to the study, research, and application research on Marxian political economy”; and that in the new era, “the study of political economy has great theoretical and practical significance.”[8] Xi Jinping explained profoundly the evolution and theoretical achievements of Marxian political economy in China.

First, during the new-democratic revolution, the Chinese Communists, such as Mao Zedong, systematically explained the theories of the economic form and nature in semi-colonial and semi-feudal China, and the system, institutions and structure of the new-democracy economy, which Xi Jinping summarized: “Mao Zedong created the new-democracy economic program.”[9]

Second, in the period of transition from new democracy to socialism and the comprehensive promotion of socialist development, the theory of political economy of socialist transition with Chinese characteristics was formed, and great achievements were simultaneously made in the transition to the basic socialist economic system, the transformation of the dominant economic system, sustained growth of productive forces and significant improvement of people’s living standards. This was followed by the exploration of the path to socialist economic development in China and the creation of a series of original theories of the adaptation of Marxian political economy to the Chinese context despite many twists and turns. Just as Xi Jinping summarized, during this period, “the original ideas on the development of China’s economy created during the exploration of the path to socialist development, such as the theory of the basic problems of socialist society and the important idea of comprehensive and balanced approach, paying attention to the comprehensive balance, and taking agriculture as the basis for development. In the process of exploring the path of socialist development, the Party put forward original ideas on the development of our economy, such as the theory of the basic problems of socialist society, the ideas of taking all factors into consideration and striving for overall balance, and coordinating the development of agriculture, light industry and heavy industry with agriculture as the foundation and industry as the leading force. These are our Party’s creative development of Marxian political economy.”[10]

Third, the new period of reform and opening up and socialist modernization from the Third Plenary Session of the 11th CPC Central Committee held in late 1978, the CPC always “integrated the fundamental principles of Marxian political economy with the new practice of reform and opening up, and constantly enriched and developed Marxian political economy.”[11] In his review of the development of socialist political economy in China after this Third Plenary Session, Xi Jinping stated that, “As reform and opening up progressed, we created many important theories of Marxian political economy in contemporary China.” The main theories created in the new period are the theories of the essence of socialism; the basic economic system at the primary stage of socialism; the development of the socialist market economy; the coordination of new industrialization, IT application, urbanization and agricultural modernization; the ownership, contract rights and management rights of the land contracted by farmers; the use of the international and domestic markets and resources; and gradually achieving common prosperity for all. “These theories, which were not discussed by the classic Marxist authors and for which we had no practice and understanding before reform and opening up. They are political economy adapted to contemporary Chinese conditions and the characteristics of the times, and have not only effectively guided the practice of China’s economic development, but also opened up a new realm of Marxist political economy.”[12]

Reviewing history enhances China’s historical awareness in the 21st century; summarizing views improves its theoretical awareness in the current new era. Xi Jinping’s major remarks on adhering to and developing Marxian political economy in the new era have expanded the new horizon of 21st century Marxian political economy:

First, he stated that, “Marxian political economy is an important part of Marxism and we must develop it if we want to adhere to and develop Marxism,” emphasizing the need to give a new contemporary connotation to Marxist political economy in the 21st century.

Second, he warned that, “Whether we can steer the ship of our economy in the right direction in a volatile world economy is a major test for our Party,” pointing out the new direction for theoretical innovation and creation of 21st century Marxian political economy.

Third, he stated that, learning the fundamental principles and methodology of Marxian political economy is “conducive to mastering scientific methods of economic analysis, understanding the process of economic movement, grasping the laws of social and economic development, improving the ability to regulate the socialist market economy, and better answering the theoretical and practical questions of China’s economic development,”[13] highlighting the new requirements for the development of 21st century Marxian political economy. 

II. The Transformation of the Theme of Narrow Political Economy

and the Creativity of Xi Jinping’s Economic Thinking 

Since the CPC’s 18th National Congress, Xi Jinping’s economic thinking has become the latest form of 21st century Marxian political economy.

At its 19th National Congress in October 2017, the CPC made Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era its guiding thought. The first Central Economic Work Conference held in December of the same year after the 19th Congress, the first scientific generalization of Xi Jinping’s economic thinking on socialism with Chinese characteristics for a new era was made. This overview made unswervingly implementing the new development philosophy the main content of Xi Jinping’s economic thinking.

Concept is the precursor of action, and development practices are led by development concepts. Since the 18th Party Congress, the CPC has made scientific judgments on the evolution of economic relations and changes in the economic situation and made timely adjustments to development philosophies and ideas to form the institutional framework for promoting the sustainable and healthy development of China’s economy. The new development philosophy formed in this process, as a systematic theory, “answers a series of theoretical and practical questions about the purpose, driving force, mode and path of development, and clarifies our Party’s political stance, value orientation, development model, development path and other major political issues regarding development.”[14]

This generalization is based on the theoretical essence of the Seven Commitments.

First of all, commitments to strengthening the leadership of the CPC over economic work and to a people-centered philosophy of development are the centralized embodiment of the essential characteristics and core positions of Xi Jinping’s economic thinking. The theory of adhering to the Party’s leadership over economic work highlights the essential features and fundamental requirements of the Party’s centralized and unified leadership over economic work in the governance of the country to ensure that the socialist economy with Chinese characteristics develops in the right direction. The people are the Party’s deepest foundation and greatest strength in governance. Only by adhering to the people-centered development philosophy and to concept that development is for the people, reliant on the people, and that its fruits are shared by the people will it be possible to develop a correct concept of development and modernization. Upholding the people-centered development theory is fundamentally to make working for the happiness of the people and realizing the people’s expectations for a better life the root and soul of the new development philosophy as well as the starting and ending points of socialist economic development with Chinese characteristics.

Second, the three commitments to adapting to and steering the new normal in economic development, to promoting reform to develop the socialist market economy and carrying out supply-side structural reform are the three theoretical pillars of Xi Jinping’s economic thought. At a meeting of the Standing Committee of the CPC Central Committee Political Bureau in July 2013, Xi Jinping noted that China’s economy was now facing a complex situation which involved a shift in the growth rate, a painful structural adjustment, and a need to absorb the fallout of previous stimulus policies. At the same time, the global economy was also in a period of profound adjustment, which made for a very complex international environment. This required China to gain a proper understanding of the characteristics of the new normal of its economic development and fundamentally “blaze a new path of development with higher quality, better efficiency, better structure and full exploitation of advantages, and ensure that its economy develops a more advanced form, a more optimal division of labor and a more reasonable structure.”[15] From understanding to adapting to and leading the new normal, this has become the big logic of China’s economic development in this period.

Adhering to the theory of deepening reform to develop the socialist market economy essentially means that the market allocation of resources is the most efficient, the market determines the allocation of resources is the general law of the market economy, and it is necessary to make the market play a decisive role in the allocation of resources, and redefine the role of the market. To integrate the socialist economy and the market economy, it is necessary to make the “invisible hand” play a decisive role in resource allocation, and to ensure the government better plays the role as the “visible hand.”

Adhering to the theory of supply-side structural reform emphasizes the need to adapt the change in the principal contradiction of Chinese society in the new era, improve macro-regulation, and promote supply-side structural reform as the main task of economic work. The five priorities in promoting supply-side structural reform are cutting overcapacity, reducing excess inventory, deleveraging, lowering costs, and strengthening areas of weakness. The general requirement to deepen supply-side structural reform and promote high-quality economic development is implement the guidelines of consolidating the gains in the five priority tasks, strengthening the dynamism of micro entities, upgrading industrial chains, and ensuring unimpeded flows in the economy.

Third, taking a problem-oriented approach and having sound tactics and approaches are the fundamental approach and strategic planning of Xi Jinping’s economic thinking. Taking a problem-oriented approach, focusing on outstanding problems and obvious areas of weakness, and responding to the people’s aspirations and expectations are the basic methodology of Xi Jinping’s economic thinking. Having sound tactics and approaches fundamentally means adhering to upheld the underlying principle of pursuing progress while ensuring stability. Centering on improving the quality and efficiency of development, strengthening the guidance of expectations, driving development through innovation, and promoting stable and healthy economic development and social harmony and stability is the strategic plan of Xi Jinping’s economic thought.

After the CPC’s 19th Party Congress in 2017, Xi Jinping developed the strategy of building a modern economic system that is compatible with the idea of building a great modern socialist country. The main points of this strategy are as follows.

(1)   Make deepening the supply-side structural reform the main task of development, put the focus of economic development on the real economy, prioritize the improvement of the quality of the supply system, and significantly improve the quality of China’s economic development;

(2)   Find strategic support from accelerating the implementation of the innovation-driven development strategy and the building of a country of innovators;

(3)   Make the implementation of the strategies for revitalizing rural areas and coordinating the development of regions the key to economic development;

(4)   Make deepening economic reform the institutional guarantee for development, resolutely eliminate faulty institutions and mechanisms, and make the whole of society more innovative and enterprising;

(5)   Make new ground in pursuing opening up on all fronts and actively participate in and promote economic globalization to improve international competitiveness, make better use of global resources and markets, and turn China into a trader of quality.

Analyzing and defining the principal contradiction in Chinese society is an important governance method of the CPC. Dealing with and solving this problem in the new era has become the most basic and important subject facing Xi Jinping’s economic thinking. Xi Jinping stated that, “The Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era makes clear that the principal contradiction facing Chinese society in the new era is that between unbalanced and inadequate development and the people’s ever-growing needs for a better life. We must therefore continue commitment to our people-centered philosophy of development, and work to promote well-rounded human development and common prosperity for everyone.”[16] In formulating the 14th Five-Year Plan (2021–2025), he said, “We must dialectically understand and grasp the overall situation at home and abroad and implement the national rejuvenation strategy within a wider context of the once-in-a-century changes taking place in the world. We need to acquire a full understanding of the new features and requirements arising from the change to the principal contradiction in Chinese society and the new issues and challenges stemming from a complicated international environment.”[17] Grasping the characteristics of the times and forging ahead with the times by implementing the national rejuvenation strategy within a wider context of the once-in-a-century changes taking place in the world has expanded a new realm of Xi Jinping’s economic thinking as 21st century Marxian political economy.

Xi Jinping’s economic thinking firmly grasps the principal contradiction in Chinese society in the new development stage, and sublimates the theoretical power and intellectual wisdom of 21st century Marxian political economy.

First, Xi Jinping’s economic thinking puts forward the new idea of the Chinese path to modernization. This path highlights the need to deal with a huge population, ensure common prosperity for all, coordinate material and cultural-ethical progress, promote harmony between human beings and nature, take the road of peaceful development, and promote coordinated economic, political, cultural, social, and ecological advancement. The path is an important inspiration for the development of the new form of human civilization in the 21st century.

Second, Xi Jinping’s economic thinking reinforces the essential requirement of promoting common prosperity for all. Common prosperity is the essential requirement of socialism, and the development of socialism with Chinese characteristics is fundamentally to achieve common prosperity for all. In the new journey of building a great modern socialist country in all respects, it is necessary to put the promotion of common prosperity for all in a more important position, and persistently and firmly make more active efforts toward this goal with greater achievements, so as to create a better prospect for human society in the 21st century.

Third, Xi Jinping’s economic thinking forms a new development pattern and a new strategy. With the changes in the external environment and the factor endowment of China’s development and with the increasing satisfaction of the people’s aspiration for a better life, the potential of China’s domestic demand is being released. To achieve balanced and full development, it is necessary to provide strong internal impetus to high-quality economic development, remove the barriers and increase the links between production, distribution, circulation, and consumption in the process of economic operation. It has become an inevitable trend to create a new development pattern featuring a double development dynamic with the domestic economy as the mainstay and the domestic economy and international engagement providing mutual reinforcement.

Fourth, Xi Jinping’s economic thinking proposes a new strategy to integrate development and security. Enhancing the awareness that security is a prerequisite for development and development is a guarantee for security has become a major strategic issue in promoting the development of socialism with Chinese characteristics in the new era. At the Central Economic Work Conference in 2021, Xi Jinping analyzed the current issue of integrating development and security and concluded that this is “a major political and economic issue that must be addressed” and that if it is left unattended, “it will have an impact on economic development and social stability.”[18] He emphasized the need to understand our strategic goal of common prosperity and know how to make it happen; the nature of capital and how it works; the supply of primary products; the prevention and defuse of major risks; and carbon dioxide peaking and carbon neutrality. He also called of efforts to coordinate development and security, enhance the awareness of opportunities and risks, adopt a worst-case scenario mentality, and effectively prevent and defuse all kinds of risks and challenges to ensure the smooth advancement of socialist modernization.

Xi Jinping’s economic thinking is not only a theoretical innovation and theoretical creation in the face of the latest reality of socialist development with Chinese characteristics and the latest form of Marxian political economy in contemporary China; it also has a profound grasp of the intrinsic requirements and trends of today’s world economic development, highlighting the profound contemporary implications of of 21st century Marxian political economy. 

III. The Innovation of Contemporary Capitalist Political Economy

and Xi Jinping’s Economic Thinking 

The study of contemporary capitalist political economy covered in Xi Jinping’s economic thinking is a remarkable sign of the development of Marxian political economy in a widest sense in the 21st century.

Since the beginning of the 21st century, the global dominance of international monopoly capitalism led by the U.S. has continued to decline, and the economic, political, cultural and military factors on which the dominance of U.S. imperialism is based have been struggling with multiple shocks. Since 2008, under the continuous influence of the global financial crisis, the world’s major industrialized countries have been in economic downturn, the international financial markets have tumbled, and international economic interactions, especially international trade and international investment, have suffered dearly. Since 2017, resistance against economic globalization has been on the increase, protectionism and unilateralism have been prevalent in some countries, and geopolitical risks and conflicts have become more and more serious problems. The fundamental issue of contemporary capitalist political economy research is no longer the question of whether the dominance of international monopoly capital is declining, but the changes in international monopoly capitalism and its essential features and historical trends that accompany this inevitable decline.

First of all, the importance of research on contemporary capitalist political economy should be deeply understood in the light of the changes in the development of the 21st century. In September 2017, Xi Jinping, speaking on the issue of continuing to develop and popularize Marxism in the modern Chinese context, stated that, “To develop Marxism in the 21st century and Marxism in China today, and to ensure it continues to shine as truth, we must proceed from China’s reality and have the whole world in view; we must upgrade our theories to ensure that they keep pace with the times; and we must acquire a full understanding of the practical significance of Marxism for today.” For the development of 21st century Marxian political economy, it is necessary to “proceed from China’s reality” in deepening the study of socialist political economy with Chinese characteristics; it is also necessary to “have the whole world in view” in expanding the study of contemporary capitalist political economy. For the study of contemporary capitalist political economy, Xi Jinping stated that, “The world is evolving more rapidly than ever before, giving rise to many profound and complicated problems and theoretical questions. Accordingly, we need to enhance our research on modern capitalism, analyze what changes are happening and the nature of these changes, and acquire a better understanding of the law governing the profound and complicated changes in capitalism and international political and economic relations.”[19] Advancing the development of Marxian political economy in the widest sense in the 21st century is a main task of the research on Xi Jinping’s economic thinking.

Second, Capital still has important guiding significance in the study of contemporary capitalist political economy. In his speech at a Seminar on Philosophy and Social Sciences in May 2016, Xi Jinping stated that, “Some say that Marxian political economy is outdated and Capital is obsolete. This statement is arbitrary. Let me give a recent example. Just look at the global financial crisis. The continued economic downturn, increasing polarization and deepening social problems in many Western countries show that the problem between the socialization of production and the private appropriation of the means of production inherent in capitalism still exists, but it is manifested and exists in a way different from before.” It is an indisputable fact that “after the international financial crisis broke out, many Western scholars are also studying Marxian political economy and Capital anew, in order to reflect on the shortcomings of capitalism.”[20] For the study of contemporary capitalist political economy, it is necessary to integrate the scientific principles and the scientific spirit of Capital. In his evaluation of the book Capital in the Twenty-First Century written by French economist Thomas Piketty, Xi Jinping expressed his appreciation of the book for “proving with informative data that inequality in the United States and other Western countries has reached or exceeded the highest level in history, and concluding that unchecked capitalism has exacerbated wealth inequality and other phenomena which will continue to worsen.” However, he questioned the book’s tendency to “analyze mainly the field of distribution, without dealing much with the more fundamental issue of ownership,” stressing that “Marxist political economy argues that ownership of the means of production is the core of the relations of production and determines the basic nature and direction of development of society.”[21] It is obvious that it is theoretically biased to talk about the problems of capitalist economic relations and their development orientation only from the perspective of distribution, in isolation from capitalist ownership of the means of production and its general economic relations.

Third, it is necessary to establish the scientific concept of historical dialectics from a large historical perspective and deeply understand the characteristics of the development themes of capitalist political economy in the 21st century. Xi Jinping stated that, “Things in the world are always connected in one way or another, and their development cannot be viewed in isolation and in a static manner; otherwise the problem of one-sidedness will often arise on. As Laozi said in his Daodejing, ‘It is that existence and non-existence give birth the one to (the idea of) the other; that difficulty and ease produce the one (the idea of) the other; that length and shortness fashion out the one the figure of the other; that (the ideas of) height and lowness arise from the contrast of the one with the other; that the musical notes and tones become harmonious through the relation of one with another; and that being before and behind give the idea of one following another.’ In observing social development, it is essential to pay attention to the organic connection between deciding and being decided and between action and reaction.”[22]

In the study of contemporary capitalist political economy, it is necessary to deeply comprehend Marx and Engels’ notion of the historical dialectic of the Two Inevitables, and Two Nevers. Xi Jinping pointed out, “Marx and Engels used the law that the basic problems of society drive social development and scientifically predicted future social development. The Communist Manifesto states that, ‘Its [The bourgeoisie’s] fall and the victory of the proletariat are equally inevitable.’ These are known as the Two Inevitables, which are about the general development trend of human history and the inevitable laws of history. I also want to discuss the Two Nevers. Marx said, ‘No social order is ever destroyed before all the productive forces for which it is sufficient have been developed, and new superior relations of production never replace older ones before the material conditions for their existence have matured within the framework of the old society’.”[23] The Two Inevitables reveal the historical inevitability of the tendency of socialism to replace capitalism. The Two Nevers explore the inherent law of the process of socialism replacing capitalism. Obviously, the Two Nevers are not a negation of the Two Inevitables, but a refinement of them from the evolution of the process. According to Xi Jinping, “This important argument of Marx can help us understand why capitalism has not completely died out so far, why socialism still has twists and turns like the demise of the Soviet Union and the dramatic changes in Eastern Europe, and why the communism foreseen by Marxism still needs a long historical development to be realized.”[24]

Fourth, adhering to the basic principles and methodology of Marxian political economy does not mean rejecting the reasonable elements of various foreign economic theories. According to Xi Jinping, “We should digest their essence and employ them for our own use on the basis of our own systems. We should not copy the contents that reflect the attributes and values of the capitalist system and have the color of Western ideology.” It should be clear that, “Although economics is the study of economic problems, it cannot be separated from social politics completely. In our economics teaching, we cannot be limited to foreign economics other than Marxian political economy but to make great efforts to teach Marxian political economy and contemporary Chinese socialist political economy instead of marginalizing them.”[25]

Fifth, great importance should be attached to the study of the new situation and new problems of contemporary capitalist economic relations, especially the study of the essential features of contemporary capitalist economic relations and how they go wrong. Xi Jinping stated that it is particularly important to strengthen “the critical revelation of the structural problems of capitalism, as well as its problems of modes of production, class problems and social problems, and the in-depth analysis of the crisis of capitalism, the evolutionary process of capitalism, and the new form and nature of capitalism.” He added that the new theories and views arising from the in-depth analysis of these issues “will help us to fully understand the development trend and fate of capitalism, accurately grasp the changes and characteristics of contemporary capitalism, and deepen our understanding of the evolutionary trends of contemporary capitalism.”[26]

In integrating the scientific spirit and scientific method of Marxian political economy, Xi Jinping has made an in-depth exploration and study of the basic issues of contemporary capitalist political economy in the following 10 main areas:

(1)   Changes in the basic problems of contemporary capitalism and their characteristics;

(2)   The new industrial revolution and scientific and technological progress and the development of contemporary capitalism;

(3)   The evolutionary process of the capitalist economy and the problem of “new forms”;

(4)   The trend of long-term sluggishness in the economic development of capitalist countries and its root causes;

(5)   The role of international financial market relations and their changes;

(6)   The problems of class differentiation and employment and unemployment in capitalist economic relations;

(7)   The problems of impoverishment and polarization in capitalist economic relations;

(8)   The development of emerging industrialized countries and its relationship with the development of capitalism;

(9)   The changes in the contemporary capitalist economic crisis and its nature;

(10)             Capitalism’s structural problems, problems in modes of production, class problems, and social problems.

“For Marxian political economy to be viable, it must keep up with the times.”[27] Whether in the study of political economy of capitalism or socialism, “We should be based on national conditions, and meanwhile open ourselves to the rest of the world, drawing from the good theories, ideas and intellectual achievements of all humanity. But we cannot enshrine any of these theories, ideas or intellectual achievements as the one and only criterion, or attempt to transform the world with a single mode. Otherwise we will slip into the mire of mechanism.”[28] In general, Xi Jinping stated that, “Philosophy and social science researchers must adopt a critical attitude, the most valued quality of Marxism.”[29] 

IV. Political Economy of the Human Community with a Shared Future

and the Innovation of Xi Jinping’s Economic Thinking 

Xi Jinping made a new exploration and development of Marx and Engels’ world history theory from the perspective of building a human community with a shared future. He stated that, “Marx and Engels predicted in their The German Ideology that, ‘[T]he more the original isolation of the separate nationalities is destroyed by the developed mode of production and intercourse and the division of labor between various nations naturally brought forth by these, the more history becomes world history.’ This prediction has now become a reality, and history and reality increasingly prove the scientific value of this prediction.”[30]

Facing the new course of world history in the 21st century, Xi Jinping noted that, “Today, the global nature of human interaction is deeper and more extensive than ever before, and the interconnectedness and interdependence of countries are more frequent and closer than ever before.” This makes it necessary for China to look at the development trend and major issues facing the world today from the perspective of world history, “to achieve win-win cooperation and common development in more areas and at a higher level without depending on or plundering others, and to work with all peoples to build a human community with a shared future and make the world a better place.”[31]

The political economy of the human community with a shared future is based on the new round of great development, transformation and adjustment of the scientific, technological, economic and political landscape the world is undergoing today, and numerous unstable and uncertain economic, political and social factors facing humanity. Xi Jinping made a political economy analysis of the human community with a shared future based on problem awareness.

First, regarding the new trend of world history, Xi Jinping stated that, “It is a world where peace, development, cooperation, and common benefits have become the trends of our time. The old colonial systems have collapsed, and the confrontation between blocs of the Cold War is long gone. No one country or group of countries will ever again singlehandedly dominate world affairs.”[32] This makes it necessary for China to look at the development trends and major issues facing the world today from the perspective of world history.

Second, regarding the changes in the landscape of world history, Xi believes that, “It is a world where a great many emerging markets and developing countries have embarked on a fast track to development. Billions of people are picking up pace in their move toward modernization. Multiple growth centers have emerged in regions all over the world. And the international balance of power continues to evolve in the right direction for world peace and development.”[33] Today’s world history is no longer a pattern dominated by a single capitalist mode of production, but a pattern in which multiple modes of production and their associated economic, political and cultural systems coexist for a long time. Adhering to the open strategy of mutual benefit and constantly expanding cooperation among all countries in the world have become the inherent driver for building a human community with a shared future.

Third, regarding the new characteristics of the way of interaction in world history, Xi stated that, ”It is a world where countries are connected to and depend on each other to an extent never before experienced. We as humans all live in the same global village, in the same time and space at the confluence of history and reality. More and more we are becoming a community with a shared future in which we all have a little of others within us.”[34] Dealing with and solving major issues concerning the future of humanity in the same community has become an inevitable choice for the development of human society.

Finally, regarding the new problems facing the development of world history, Xi stated that, “It is a world where humankind continues to face a great many problems and challenges. The deep impact of the global financial crisis continues to be felt, protectionism in all shapes and forms is palpably on the rise, regional hotspots flare up ceaselessly, hegemonism, power politics, and neo-interventionism have all seen a rise, and conventional and non-conventional security threats, like arms races, terrorism, and cyber insecurity, are inextricably linked. Protecting world peace and promoting common development today remain a long and uphill battle.”[35] These problems and challenges constitute the problem awareness of the political economy of the human community with a shared future, and outline the direction and theme of its study.

Proposing the new international relations based on contemporary changes in world history era is the theoretical premise of the political economy of the human community with a shared future. Since the CPC’s 18th National Congress, in the new process of adhering to and developing socialism with Chinese characteristics, how to develop a higher level of open economy by following the trend of deep integration of China’s economy into the world economy; how to actively participate in global economic governance to ensure that international economic order moves toward equality and justice and mutually beneficial cooperation; how to safeguard China’s development interests, prevent various economic risks and ensure national economic security have become important tasks to develop Xi Jinping’s economic thinking. The accomplishment of these tasks has become the distinctive mark of the sublimation of 21st century Marxian political economy.

The political economy of the human community with a shared future has put forward major theoretical and practical issues suitable for the new characteristics of the development of international economic relations in the 21st century. Since the CPC’s 19th National Congress held in 2017, Xi Jinping has further enriched and developed the idea of building a human community with a shared future, and further clarified the theoretical main points of the political economy of the human community with a shared future.[36]

1. Committed to development as a priority

Development is the eternal theme of human society. To uphold the concept of building a human community with a shared future, it is important to stick to the cooperation concept based on mutual benefit, say no to narrow-minded, selfish beggar-thy-neighbor policies, and stop the practice of keeping to oneself all advantages gained in development. All countries—the main economies in particular—should strengthen macro policy coordination. Major economies should see the world as a single community, apply systems thinking and increase policy transparency and information sharing. Major developed countries should adopt responsible economic policies, manage policy spillovers, and avoid severe impacts on developing countries. Xi Jinping stated that, “We need to foster global development partnerships that are more equal and balanced and forge greater synergy among multilateral development cooperation processes.”[37]

2. Committed to a people-centered approach

Development is meaningful only when it advances the people’s interests, and can be sustained only when it is driven by the people. At present, the process of global development is suffering from severe disruption, exacerbating prominent problems such as a widening North-South gap, diverging recovery trajectories, development fault lines, and a technological divide. Difficulties are mounting in food security, education, employment, medicine, health and other areas critical to people’s wellbeing. Whatever difficulties may come our way, we must adhere to a people-centered philosophy of development and place development and people’s wellbeing front and center in global macro policies. Xi Jinping stated, “We should continue our work so that the people will have a greater sense of gain, fulfillment and security, and achieve well-rounded development.”[38]

3. Committed to benefits for all

Staying committed to benefits for all means that China should direct its attention to the special needs of other developing countries. It may employ such means as debt suspension and development aid to help other developing countries, particularly vulnerable countries facing exceptional difficulties, with the emphasis on addressing imbalanced and insufficient development between and within countries. Only by overcoming the development gap between developed and developing countries, pursuing common development, promoting fairness and inclusiveness, solving the problem of unbalanced development, and jointly promoting the development and prosperity of all countries, can we open up broader prospects for common human development.

4. Committed to innovation-driven development

Scientific and technological innovation is the key engine for human progress. It a powerful instrument to overcome many global challenges. Scientific and technological advances should benefit all of humanity rather than be used to curb and contain the development of other countries. Xi Jinping stated, “We need to seize the historic opportunities created by the new revolution in science, technology and industry, redouble our efforts to harness technological achievements to boost productivity, and foster an open, fair, equitable and nondiscriminatory environment for the development of science and technology. We should foster new drivers of economic growth in the post-Covid era and jointly pursue leapfrog development.”[39]

5. Committed to harmony between humanity and nature

Confronted by the severe challenges to human existence and development posed by climate change, we need to be bold in our responses and work as one to find the way to harmonious coexistence with nature. Countries need to take concrete actions to protect Mother Nature. We need to encourage green recovery, green production, and green consumption, promote healthy and positive lifestyles, and foster harmony between humanity and nature.

6. Committed to results-oriented actions

All countries need to demonstrate a strong commitment to their global responsibilities in the face of daunting global challenges. Indeed, they need to determine a decisive direction for humanity at this juncture. We must take action instead of simply watching as bystanders, and endeavor to shape the future of humanity. At present, it is particularly important to increase input and financing in development, and prioritize cooperation in areas such as poverty reduction, food security, COVID-19 response and vaccines, climate change, green development, industrialization, the digital economy, and connectivity in order to build a global development community with a shared future.

In the part on “The Historical Significance of the Party’s Endeavors over the Past Century,” the Resolution of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on the Major Achievements and Historical Experience of the Party over the Past Century explains the statement that, “The Party’s endeavors over the past century have produced a profound influence on the course of world history.” The Resolution states that, “The Party has promoted the development of a human community with a shared future, and offered Chinese wisdom, Chinese solutions, and Chinese strength for addressing major issues facing humanity and for building an open, inclusive, clean, and beautiful world that enjoys enduring peace, universal security, and common prosperity. It has thus become an important force driving human development and progress.”[40] From this historical significance, Xi Jinping’s political economy of the human community with a shared future is a major theoretical innovation of 21st century Marxian political economy. 

V. Xi Jinping’s Economic thinking and the New Realm

of 21st century Marxian political economy 

The Resolution of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on the Major Achievements and Historical Experience of the Party over the Past Century reviews the significance of the Party’s endeavors over the past century and its historical experience and provides a profound interpretation of Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era as the connotation of Marxism in the 21st century. This highlights the theoretical theme and intellectual purpose of Marxism in the 21st century. It is also important for us to understand the theoretical characteristics, theoretical qualities, historical continuity, contemporary issues, intellectual essence and basic positions of Xi Jinping’s economic thinking as 21st century Marxian political economy.

First of all, in terms of theoretical characteristics, Xi Jinping’s economic thinking, as 21st century Marxian political economy, stands out as follows: It urges the Chinese people “to use Marxism to observe and decipher the world today and lead them through it and develop it in dynamic and abundant practice in contemporary China; learn from all the achievements of human civilization with an extensive view; outdo themselves to protect their foundations while innovating, and learn widely from the strengths of others to improve themselves; have a deeper understanding of governance by a communist party, the development of socialism, and the evolution of human society; and open up new prospects for the development of Marxism in contemporary China and the 21st century.”[41] The connotation and realm of 21st century Marxian political economy highlights the thinking method of “observing and deciphering the world today and lead people through it” and calls for efforts to develop Marxian political economy in dynamic and abundant practice in contemporary China and world development reality.

Xi Jinping’s economic thinking, whether as political economy in the narrower sense or in the widest sense, embodies the theoretical characteristics of “proceeding from China’s national conditions and development practice, extensively studying the new situation and new problems faced by the world economy and China’s economy, revealing new features and new laws, and reviewing and summarizing the achievements of China’s economic development.”[42]

Second, in terms of theoretical quality, Xi Jinping’s economic thinking, as 21st century Marxian political economy, upholds fundamental principles, breaks new ground and keeps, highlighting the methodology of problem awareness. In November 2013, Xi Jinping delivered the speech “Explanation on the Resolution of the CPC Central Committee on Certain Major Issues Concerning Comprehensively Deepening Reform,” stating that, “We should be strongly aware of our problems, with particular attention to major ones. We should further study and contemplate major problems, and work hard to resolve prominent problems facing our country’s development.”[43]

Shortly after the CPC’s 19th National Congress, Xi Jinping, in his interpretation of the economic thinking of socialism with Chinese characteristics in the new era, again emphasized the need to “take a problem-oriented approach in developing new strategies for economic growth.” He noted that this economic thinking is a “rational summary” of socialist political economy with Chinese characteristics “crystallizes the experience of our economic development.”[44] All this has created the methodological essentials of a new realm of Marxist political economy in the 21st century.

Third, in terms of historical inheritance, Xi Jinping’s economic thought is the succession and promotion of the Chinese version of Marxist political economy in a new era by the CPC over the past century. The Resolution of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on the Major Achievements and Historical Experience of the Party over the Past Century draws the following theoretical conclusion: “Over the past century, the Party has rallied under the banner of Marxism, continued to adapt Marxism to the Chinese context and the needs of our times, embraced all the outstanding achievements of human society with a broad-minded perspective, and used the sound theories derived from adapting Marxism to the Chinese context to guide its great endeavors.”[45] This conclusion is also an incisive summary of the historical continuity of Marxian political economy in the 21st century.

Xi Jinping’s economic thinking is the theoretical crystallization of the CPC’s unremitting exploration and innovation in the historical process of socialist modernization, and is the CPC’s intellectual summary of 21st century Marxian political economy. In this historical continuity, Xi Jinping’s economic thinking works to integrate with the best of traditional Chinese culture, revealing the theoretical charm and intellectual wisdom of 21st century Chinese Marxian political economy, and writing a new chapter in 21st century Marxian political economy rich in Chinese characteristics.

In December 2021, Xi Jinping stated at the Central Economic Work Conference that it is necessary to understand the major theoretical and practical issues of China’s development. He noted that to understand China’s strategic goal of common prosperity and know how to make it happen, it is essential to know that, “A country is truly prosperous only when its people are prosperous”[46] and that, “The creation and distribution of wealth is a critical issue faced by all countries.”[47] Xi said that to understand the nature of capital and how it works, “It is wealth that binds the people of a country together, and it is the law that governs the wealth of a country” and it is necessary to explore “how to boost the positive contribution of capital in the socialist market economy while keeping its negative effects under control.” He noted that to understand how to ensure the supply of primary products, the idea that “Utilized with restraint, resources will be abundant; otherwise, they will be scarce” counts.[48] He also stressed the importance of implementing a comprehensive resource conservation strategy and promote conservation campaigns in all fields. Xi stated that to understand how to prevent and defuse major risks, he quoted a 13th-century Chinese scholar as saying, “We must nip troubles in the bud and eliminate illnesses at their earliest stage.”[49] He emphasized deeper understanding of the need to “be quick and sharp in perceiving potential risks, identify problems early and correct them while they are nascent, and preempt major risks and crises.”[50] These traditional theoretical and cultural views Xi used were created from the Wei and Jin dynasties to the Ming and Qing dynasties. Some involve theoretical methods and concepts, and some directly address economic thinking on governance. All this reflects how Xi Jinping’s economic thinking has creatively transformed and innovatively developed the best of traditional Chinese culture, and embodies the theoretical characteristics of 21st century Marxian political economy.

Fourth, in terms of the critical question of our times, Xi Jinping’s economic thinking is just like what the Resolution says when it discusses the major questions of our times: “Our continued success in adapting Marxism to the Chinese context and the needs of our times has enabled Marxism to take on a fresh face in the eyes of the world, and significantly shifted the worldwide historical evolution of and contest between the two different ideologies and social systems of socialism and capitalism in a way that favors socialism.”[51]

The important ideas of Xi Jinping’s economic thinking on the interpretation of the economic system, economic structure and economic operation under socialism with Chinese characteristics, its discussion of the essential characteristics and development trend of the contemporary capitalist economic system and structure, and its groundbreaking research on the political economy of the human community with a shared future all reflect the new image of Marxian political economy, have a profound influence of the socialist economic system and economic relations on the course of world history, and display the true meaning of the issues of our times addressed by 21st century Marxian political economy.

Fifth, in terms of the essence of thought, Xi Jinping’s economic thinking, as 21st century Marxian political economy, is a high degree of condensation and crystallization of the theoretical innovation and theoretical creation of contemporary Marxian political economy in the practice of understanding and transforming the world. For example, the political economy theory of the Chinese path to modernization makes a new exploration of the direction and evolutionary form of development in the 21st century, gives the human society’s choice of the path to modernization a brighter new style and more remarkable Chinese connotation, and provides a brand-new choice for those countries and peoples in the world that wish to accelerate development while maintaining their independence. Another example is that the idea of political economy in the widest sense for building a human community with a shared future is a sound conclusion based on the reality of Marx and Engels’ world history theory, a historical conclusion on the basic situation and inherent tendency of the coexistence of socialism and capitalism, and a manifestation of the new meaning of the Marxist view of world history and Marxian political economy in the 21st century.

Sixth, in terms of basic position, Xi Jinping’s economic thinking, as 21st century Marxian political economy, takes “maintaining a global vision” as its historical consciousness and historical responsibility and always cogitates on the future of humanity with a global vision. “It has understood and handled China’s relations with the rest of the world in the context of the general trend of human development, the grand scheme of things amid global changes, and the entire course of Chinese history. It champions opening up over isolation, pursues mutual benefit instead of zero-sum games, and stands up for fairness and justice. It has thus been able to stand on the right side of history and the side of human progress.”[52]

Xi Jinping’s economic thinking boldly breaks new ground and strives for progress based on the new practices of the development of the China economy and the world economy in the 21st century. This has made Marxian political economy full of more modern and open theoretical power and theoretical wisdom. Based on the new era and a full understanding of the development reality of China’s economy and the world economy, Xi Jinping’s economic thinking explores changes with many new historical features and new circumstances with many new contemporary features. “Constantly opening up a new realm of Marxist political economy in contemporary China, and contributing Chinese wisdom to the innovative development of Marxist political economy”[53] has become the basic stand of the development and innovation of Marxist political economy in the 21st century.

* First published in the fourth issue of Marxism & Reality in 2022.

[1] They are commitments to:

(1)    Strengthening the centralized and unified leadership of the CPC over economic work;

(2)    A people-centered philosophy of development;

(3)    Adapting to and steering the new normal in economic development;

(4)    Ensuring that the market will play the decisive role in resource allocation and that the government will exercise its functions better;

(5)    Adapting to changes of key problems in economic development and improved our macro-control;

(6)    Taking a problem-oriented approach in developing new strategies for economic growth;

(7)    Having sound tactics and approaches.

[2] Frederick Engels, 1877: Anti-Dühring—Part II: Political Economy, in Marx & Engels, Collected Works, Lawrence & Wishart, vol. 25, 2010, p. 135.

[3] Ibid., p. 136.

[4] Karl Marx, Economic Manuscripts of 1857–58, Introduction, “I. PRODUCTION, CONSUMPTION, DISTRIBUTION, EXCHANGE (CIRCULATION),” in Marx & Engels, Collected Works, Lawrence & Wishart, vol. 28, 2010, p. 43.

[5] Op. cit., p. 138.

[6] Ibid., p. 139.

[7] Ibid.

[8] Institute of Party History and Literature of the CPC Central Committee (ed.), Selected Documents Produced since the CPC’s 18th National Congress in 2012, Beijing: Central Party Literature Publishing House, vol. II, 2018, p. 2.

[9] Ibid.

[10] Ibid., p. 2.

[11] Ibid., pp. 2-3.

[12] Ibid., pp. 3–4.

[13] Ibid., pp. 1, 3.

[14] Xi Jinping, Toward a New Development Philosophy and a New Development Pattern in the New Development Stage, Beijing: Central Party Literature Publishing House, 2021, p. 479.

[15] Party Literature Research Office of the CPC Central Committee (ed.), Xi Jinping On Socialist Economic Development in China, Beijing, Central Party Literature Publishing House, 2017, p. 85.

[16] Institute of Party History and Literature of the CPC Central Committee (ed.), Selected Documents Produced since the CPC’s 19th National Congress in 2017, Beijing: Central Party Literature Publishing House, vol. I, 2019, p. 14.

[17] Xi Jinping, Toward a New Development Philosophy and a New Development Pattern in the New Development Stage, Beijing: Central Party Literature Publishing House, 2021, p. 372.

[18] Xi Jinping, “Understand the Major Theoretical and Practical Issues of China’s Development,” Qiushi, 2022, no. 10.

[19] Xi Jinping, The Communist Party of China’s Publicity and Guidance of People in Their Thinking, Beijing, Central Party Literature Publishing House, 2020, pp. 285, 287.

[20] Ibid., 225.

[21] The Institute of Party History and Literature of the CPC Central Committee (ed.), Selected Documents Produced since the CPC’s 18th National Congress in 2012, Beijing: Central Party Literature Publishing House, vol. II, 2018, pp. 2, 4–5.

[22] Op. cit., p. 36.

[23] Ibid., p. 37.

[24] Ibid.

[25] Institute of Party History and Literature of the CPC Central Committee (ed.), Selected Documents Produced since the CPC’s 18th National Congress in 2012, Beijing: Central Party Literature Publishing House, vol. II, 2018, pp. 6–7.

[26] Xi Jinping, The Communist Party of China’s Publicity and Guidance of People in Their Thinking, Beijing, Central Party Literature Publishing House, 2020, p. 287.

[27] Op. cit., p. 7.

[28] Ibid., p. 324.

[29] Xi Jinping, The Communist Party of China’s Publicity and Guidance of People in Their Thinking, Beijing, Central Party Literature Publishing House, 2020, p. 229.

[30] Institute of Party History and Literature of the CPC Central Committee (ed.), Selected Documents Produced since the CPC’s 19th National Congress in 2017, Beijing: Central Party Literature Publishing House, vol. I, 2019, p. 432.

[31] Ibid.

[32] Xi Jinping, On Building a Human Community with a Shared Future, Beijing: Central Compilation & Translation Press, 2019, p. 7.

[33] Ibid.

[34] Ibid.

[35] Ibid.

[36] Cf. Xi Jinping, “Increase Confidence and Overcome Difficulties to Build a Better World,” People’s Daily, September 22, 2021.

[37] Ibid.

[38] Ibid.

[39] Ibid.

[40] Resolution of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on the Major Achievements and Historical Experience of the Party over the Past Century, Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 2021, p. 64.

[41] Institute of Party History and Literature of the CPC Central Committee (ed.), Selected Documents Produced since the CPC’s 19th National Congress in 2017, Beijing: Central Party Literature Publishing House, vol. I, 2019, pp. 434–435.

[42] Institute of Party History and Literature of the CPC Central Committee (ed.), Selected Documents Produced since the CPC’s 18th National Congress in 2012, Beijing: Central Party Literature Publishing House, vol. II, 2018, p. 7.

[43] Ibid., p. 497.

[44] Institute of Party History and Literature of the CPC Central Committee (ed.), Selected Documents Produced since the CPC’s 19th National Congress in 2017, Beijing: Central Party Literature Publishing House, vol. I, 2019, pp. 136, 137.

[45] Resolution of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on the Major Achievements and Historical Experience of the Party over the Past Century, Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 2021, p. 63.

[46] Zhong Hui, My Humble Views (Chu Rao Lun). Zhong Hui (225–264) was a general in the Three Kingdoms Period.

[47] Wang Anshi, “An Essay on Wall Inscriptions at the Vice Finance Minister’s Office” (Du Zhi Fu Shi Ting Bi Ti Ming Ji). Wang Anshi (1021–1086) was a thinker, writer and statesman of the Northern Song Dynasty.

[48] Zhang Juzheng, “Memorial to the Throne on Current Affairs” (Lun Shi Zheng Shu). Zhang Juzheng (1525–1582) was a statesman of the Ming Dynasty.

[49] He Tan, Xichou’s Sayings (Xi Chou Chang Yan). He Tan (dates unknown), also known as Xichou, was a scholar and official of the Southern Song Dynasty (1127–1279).

[50] Xi Jinping, “Understand the Major Theoretical and Practical Issues of China’s Development,” Qiushi, 2022, no. 10.

[51] Resolution of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on the Major Achievements and Historical Experience of the Party over the Past Century, Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 2021, pp. 63–64.

[52] Ibid., p. 68.

[53] Institute of Party History and Literature of the CPC Central Committee (ed.), Selected Documents Produced since the CPC’s 18th National Congress in 2012, Beijing: Central Party Literature Publishing House, vol. II, 2018, p. 7.

Translated from Marxism & Reality,2022 No.4